Protein deficiency

• Low birth weight
• Increased neonatal mortality
• Decreased neonatal immunity

Carbohydrate-free food

• Low birth weight
• Increased neonatal mortality
• Increased numbers of stillbirths

Zinc deficiency

• Fetal resorption
• Smaller litters

Iron deficiency

• Decreased immunity and response to vaccination

Pyridoxine and biotin deficiency

• Decreased immunity and response to vaccination

Hypervitaminosis A

• Congenital abnormalities
• Smaller litters

Hypervitaminosis D

• Soft-tissue calcification

Adapted from Small Animal Clinical Nutrition, 5th Edition